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Bees

 

ORDER: Hymenoptera

FAMILY: Apidae

Bees are primary pollinators and are responsible for almost 60% of the pollination that takes place. This family includes the truly social honeybees, solitary and kleptoparasitic bees (parasitizing other bee nests by laying their eggs in host bee nests). The social honey bees are well known as pollinators as they produce the important forest product, honey. Solitary bees like digger bees, carpenter bees and other uncommon social bees like the bumble bees also play crucial roles in pollination.

 

Apis cerana
Common name: Asian honeybee

This is a commonly sighted social bee and an excellent pollinator of crops including: spice crops, fruits, nuts, oilseeds, cauliflower, okra, and onion. It has 8 subspecies. In some situations, Apis cerana is considered to be a superior pollinator compared to Apis mellifera.

Nesting Habits: In natural settings, nests in cavities where multiple combs are found. The Apis cerana is domesticated and hence also flourishes in man-made hives such as containers/boxes.

 

Apis florea
Common name: Little honeybee

It is one of two smallest honeybees found in Southeast Asia. These honey bees are important pollinators and therefore commodified in countries like Cambodia.

 

Source: http://eol.org/pages/2754888/overview
                 Suwannapong, Guntima, Mark Eric, and James C Nieh. Biology of Thai Honeybees : Natural History and Threats. N.p., 2011. Print.

 

Apis dorsata
Common name:  Giant Rock Honeybee

These social bees are known for their aggressive defense strategies and vicious behavior when disturbed. Indigenous peoples have traditionally used this species as a source of honey and beeswax, a practice known as honey hunting. As a colony is initiated, the migration depends on foraging resources and predation risks. These bees travel to different sites depending on the blooming season of flowers. There are about 100,000 members in each colony and each colony resides in one nesting site for about 3–4 months at a time. Colonies tend to decline when resources, such as food, honey, and pollen, are depleted. Colonies decline during the rainy and summer seasons because of the instability of foraging sources due to climate change.

Nesting habits: A colony is generally seen occupying a single comb, high up on the undersides of cliffs or on tall trees. One to many combs may be found at one location.

Sources:
1.  Starr, Christoper (1987). “Nest-site Preferences of the Giant Honey Bee, Apis dorsata (Hymeoptera:Apidae), in Borneo”.
2.  Pan-Pacific Entomologist (63): 37–42.)
3.  Raghunandan, K.S. (2013). “Colony status of Asian giant honeybee, Apis dorsata Fabricius in Southern Karnataka, India”.African Journal of Agricultural Research 8: 680–689.

 

Tetragonula iridipennis
Common name: Indian stingless bee

This is a tropical stingless bee species belonging to the complex genus Tetragonula with about 30 species in India. They are active nectar foragers, and thus are important as pollinators. Tetragonula honey is considered to be of medicinal value. For centuries, colonies of T. iridipennis have been kept in objects such as clay pots so that their highly prized medicinal honey can be utilized. T. iridipennis pollinates from many herbal plants such as the coco palm and the jackfruit tree. They also collect sap from tree species such as Cycas sphaerica. Seven species are reported from India in this threatened taxa.

Nesting habits: They are eusocial bees that nest in logs, wall cavities and even tree trucks.

Source: http://www.ijsr.net/archive/v4i1/SUB1566.pdf

 

Lepidotrigona ventralis
Common name:

Nesting habits: This small stingless eusocial bee has the habit of cavity nesting within hollow tree trunks, mud walls or man-made structures/containers.

Sources:
1. http://www.discoverlife.org/mp/20q?search=Lepidotrigona +ventralis
2. http://www.ajcb.in/journals/short_others_july_2014/AJCBVol3-No1-Vijayakumar.pdf

 

Tetragonula bengalensis
Common name:

The species found in India (the states of Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal and the Union Territory Puducherry)

Nesting habits: Small stingless eusocial bee whose habit is cavity nesting within hollow tree trunks, mud walls or man-made structures/containers.

 

Ceratina sexmaculata
Common name: Small carpenter bee

Nesting Habits : Named the small carpenter bee, these bees are solitary and nest in tunnels made in the soft pith of plant stems

Source:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carpenter_bee

 

Xylocopa iridipennis
Common Name: Big carpenter bee

Nesting Habits : The large carpenter bees nest in the hollows of stems or rotten wood.

Source:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carpenter_bee

 

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ORDER: Hymenoptera
FAMILY: Megachilidae

Megachile spp; Euaspis spp.; Coelioxys spp.;  Anthidiellum spp.; Lithurgus spp.
Common name: Leaf-cutter bee

Most belong to a cosmopolitan family whose habits are mostly solitary, while some may be Kleptoparasitic (parasitizing other bee nests by laying their eggs in host bee nests). They are important pollinators (e.g. legume crops such as beans) and their pollen carrying structure in on the underside of their abdomen (abdominal scopa). Their presence in the vicinity can be indirectly gauged by observing plants (e.g.) rose plants. Leaf-cutter bees line their nest with pieces of leaves and hence they cut out almost round pieces of leaves that will serve their purpose.

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ORDER: Hymenoptera
FAMILY: Halictidae

Halictus spp.; Lasioglossum  spp.; Nomia spp.
Common name: Sweat bee

Sweat bees form a family of metallic or non-metallic bees with a world-wide distribution. The family is divided into four sub-families and together, the habits of sweat bees vary from eusocial, to semi-eusocial to communal to solitary.  Halictids thus show a great diversity not just in habits but also in their morphology. Sweat bees are the most in numbers with the exception of honey bees and thus contribute very greatly to pollination of various crops and wild plants.

Nesting habits: Nesting behavior also varies through the family but ground nesting/nesting in rotting wood is seen to be common.

Source:
1. A species checklist of the Halictidae from India can be accessed here @ http://www.ipublishing.co.in/ijesarticles/twelve/articles/volth ree/EIJES31015.pdf

 

 

 

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Flies

ORDER: Diptera

FAMILY: Syrphidae

 

 

Episyrphus spp. Syrphus spp. Melanostoma spp. Spherophoria spp

Common names: Hover flies, Flower flies

 

Hover flies get their name from their behavior of hovering in the air as they forage on flowers for nectar. Hover flies are important pollinators of wild flowering plants as well agricultural crops and apart from pollination services, many species of hover flies in their larval stage also act as natural biological control agents as they are predators that feed on insects such as aphids, leaf hoppers, etc. Over 350 species of hover flies have been documented from India.

 

Source: A review paper on the hover flies from India can be accessed at this link http://www.faunajournal.com/vol2Issue3/pdf/2-2-59.1.pdf

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Butterflies

India has one of the richest and most diverse butterfly faunas in the world due to its varied climate and topography. Butterflies feed primarily on nectar from flowers. Some also derive nourishment from pollen, tree sap, rotting fruit, dung, decaying flesh, and dissolved minerals in wet sand or dirt. Flower constancy has been observed for at least one species of butterfly. Butterflies are very active during the day and visit a variety of wildflowers. Butterflies are less efficient than bees at moving pollen between plants. Highly perched on their long thin legs, they do not pick up much pollen on their bodies and lack specialized structures for collecting it. Even though they do not carry as much pollen load as bees, they are capable of moving pollen over greater distances.

Butterflies probe for nectar, their flight fuel, and typically favour the flat, clustered flowers that provide a landing pad and abundant rewards. Butterflies have good vision but a weak sense of smell. Unlike bees, butterflies can see red. Butterflies typically visit flowers that are:

  • In clusters and provide landing platforms
  • Brightly colored (red, yellow, orange)
  • Open during the day
  • Ample nectar producers, with nectar deeply hidden
  • Nectar guides present
  • May be clusters of small flowers (goldenrods, Spirea)

SUPERFAMILY: Hesperioidea

FAMILY: Hesperiidae (Skippers) – 321 species

While some of them feed on grasses, palms, bamboos, ginger and other monocotyledons, others feed on Achyranthes, Terminalia, Grewia, Dalbergia and other such dicotyledons. Most caterpillars feed at night.

SUPERFAMILY: Papilionoidea

FAMILY: Papilionidae (Swallow tails) – 107 species

The caterpillars of various swallowtail butterfly species feed on a wide range of different plants, most depending on only one of five families: Aristolochiaceae (closely related to wild ginger), Annonaceae (custard apple family), Lauraceae (laurel family), Umbelliferae (Apiaceae) (celery, carrot and parsley) and Rutaceae (citrus family). By eating some of these toxic plants, the caterpillars sequester aristolochic acid which renders both the caterpillars and the butterflies of some of these toxic, thus protecting them from predators. Swallowtail tribes Zerynthiini (Parnassiinae), Luehdorfiini (Parnassiinae) and Troidini (Papilioninae) almost exclusively use the Aristolochiaceae family as their host plants.

SUPERFAMILY: Papilionoidea

FAMILY: Pieridae (Whites and Yellows) – 109 species

SUPERFAMILY: Papilionoidea

FAMILY: Nymphalidae (Brush footed butterflies) – 521 species

SUPERFAMILY: Papilionoidea

FAMILY: Lycaenidae (Blues) – 443 species

Caterpillars in this family eat a wider variety of foods than other butterfly families. Some species eat leaves, but others specialize in flowers or fruit. One species is a  predator! This is ery rate in butterflies and moths. It feeds on wooly aphids, and females lay their eggs near their insect prey. Some adults sip nectar, but many prefer tree sap or puddles.

Source: 1. http://www.fs.fed.us/wildflowers/pollinators/animals/butterflies.shtml

  1. http://www.ifoundbutterflies.org/classification/classification-and-checklist-of-indian-butterflies
  2. Book of Indian Butterflies
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Dongria Kondh

Dongria Kondh of Niyamgiri, Odisha

The Dongria Kondh tribal community, classified as Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTG), has been a part of the Niyamgiri landscape for many years, sustaining themselves from the resources of the forests there. The Kondhs are a tribal community with several sub-groups, inhabiting hills tracts of Odisha and parts of Andhra Pradesh. Each sub-group like the Dongria, Kutia, Desia, etc., has its own distinct identity. The name Kondh is said to be derived from the Telugu word Ko or Ku, meaning ‘mountain’, thus a Kondh is a ‘mountain dweller.’ Their native language is Kui, which has no written script. The Dongria Kondh have inhabited the Niyamgiri hill range for centuries. They believe in a Supreme deity Niyamraja (the King of Law) who is also their ancestor. The Niyamgiri hills are thus ‘the Hills of Law’, the abode of Niyamraja, who rules the hills in accordance to these laws, along with other deities associated closely with nature.

The Niyamgiri hill range is spread over 250 sq.km in parts of Rayagada and Kalahandi districts of Odisha. It is part of the Karlapat and Kotgarh biodiverse landscape. The rich deciduous forests are a habitat for several endemic and threatened flora and fauna. It was declared as an Elephant Reserve by the State of Odisha in August 2004. The rivers Vamsadhara and Nagavali originate in these hills. The Niyamgiri Hills are rich in bauxite – aluminium ore and the Dongria Kondh caught the public eye when they successfully protested, lobbied, and eventually thwarted Vedanta Resources’ attempt to expand mining operations in the Niyamgiri Hills.

The customary occupations of the Dongria Kondh are agriculture (shifting cultivation) and collection and sale of minor forest produce. They practice a complex agroforestry system, cultivating patches of land cleared from the forest in rotation, rearing livestock for meat and ritual sacrifices, and collecting various minor forest produce for sustenance and medicinal purposes. The structure of the Dongria Kondh society is closely linked to the sacredness of the mountains and the laws prescribed by Niyamraja. The Dongria Kondh community is organized into several clans or kudas (at least 36 have been identified) with each clan possessing certain customary territories (distinct geocultural landscapes) called padars, which usually consist of several hills. Traditionally, the socio-political decision making body of the Dongria Kondh is known as the kutumba. The kutumba functions at the level of the clan (kuda kutumba) and at the level of a settlement (nayu kutumba).

The clans are exogamous and each clan territory has a dominant clan group as well as groups who have migrated to the clan over a period of time through marriage or kinship. The Dongria Kondh have more than 300 settlements or hamlets across the Niyamgiri hills. These settlements are not permanent, and sometimes communities abandon them in search of new ones, but the new settlements are always located within their clan territories, within their habitat. A settlement is almost always built on gentle slopes with the traditional adobe houses constructed in parallel rows. The houses have wooden foundations and posts and thatched roofs made from a locally available grass. The roofs reach close to the ground on either side. Since the region experiences heavy rainfall and winds, the sloping thatched roofs prevent heavy winds and rains from entering the houses.

The fields and forests of the Niyamgiri hills have been the educational grounds of the Dongria Kondh youth and children. The Dongria Kondh have adopted a system of imparting cultural and traditional values to the adolescents and youths in their villages through exclusive youth dormitories. This system was once prevalent throughout the tribal belt of India through the youth dormitories. Young unmarried boys and girls from the village leave their parents’ homes and stay in village dormitories in the evenings where they are taught by the older youth, thereby gaining insight into the philosophical and practical aspects of life within the community and the natural environment. They are taught about culture, territory, marriage, economics and society. In Niyamgiri, the dormitories for girls were referred to as daaska hada or dhangadi basa and the dormitories for boys as dhangda basa. In the Niyamgiri hills, this unique cultural institution is gradually being shunned by the Dongria Kondh since outsiders with whom the Dongria Kondh came in contact with viewed them as being morally objectionable.

Source: Tatpati, M., Kothari, A., & Mishra, R. (2016). The Niyamgiri Story: Challenging the Idea of Growth without Limits? Pune, Maharashtra: Kalpavriksh.